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Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council of Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H4P 2R2
Correspondence
Jalal Hawari
jalal.hawari{at}cnrc-nrc.gc.ca
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97·4 % similarity to all known Shewanella species and was most similar to those of two bioluminescent species, Shewanella hanedai and Shewanella woodyi. However, gyrB of strain HAW-EB3T was significantly different from those of other Shewanella species, with similarities less than 85 %. DNA-DNA hybridization showed that its genomic DNA was less than 25 % related to that of S. hanedai or S. woodyi. Therefore we propose Shewanella sediminis sp. nov., with HAW-EB3T (=NCIMB 14036T=DSM 17055T) as the type strain.
The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession numbers for the 16S rRNA gene sequence and the gyrB gene sequence of strain HAW-EB3T are AY579750 and AY842130, respectively.
A table of the quinone compositions of strain HAW-EB3T and other species of Shewanella is available as supplementary material in IJSEM Online.
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, b). In order to understand RDX metabolism and thus in situ biodegradation (natural attenuation) of the cyclic nitramine explosives at the Halifax site, phenotypic and genetic characterization of the isolates is necessary.
Shewanella genus was proposed by MacDonell & Colwell (1985) for two bacteria previously classified as Alteromonas putrefaciens (Long & Hammer, 1941; Lee et al., 1977) and Alteromonas hanedai (Jensen et al., 1980), and one deep-sea barophilic isolate (Deming et al., 1984). Shewanella were defined as rod-shaped, Gram-negative, oxidase-positive, motile and chemo-organotrophic aquatic bacteria with 44–47 mol% G+C (MacDonell & Colwell, 1985). Since then many new species have been found, mostly from sea water, sediment and marine organisms, and currently there are 28 recognized Shewanella species (Shewanellaceae, ‘Alteromonadales’, class ‘Gammaproteobacteria’) at the time of writing this article (Bozal et al., 2002; Coyne et al., 1989; Bowman et al., 1997; Makemson et al., 1997; Nogi et al., 1998; Leonardo et al., 1999; Brettar et al., 2002; Ivanova et al., 2001, 2003a, b, 2004a, b, c; Skerratt et al., 2002; Satomi et al., 2003; Simidu et al., 1990; Toffin et al., 2004; Venkateswaran et al., 1998b; Yoon et al., 2004a, b; Ziemke et al., 1998).
Some strains of Shewanella are known for polyunsaturated fatty acid production (Russell & Nichols, 1999; Bowman et al., 1997; Satomi et al., 2003), metal reduction (Myers & Nealson, 1988; Kostka et al., 1996), growth at low temperature (Deming et al., 1984; Jensen et al., 1980; Bozal et al., 2002) and high pressure (Nogi et al., 1998; Deming et al., 1984; Kato et al., 1998), or for the degradation of pollutants such as RDX (Zhao et al., 2004b), petroleum (Semple & Westlake, 1987) and chlorinated solvents (Petrovskis et al., 1994). The objective of the present study is to extensively characterize the RDX-degrading isolate, Shewanella sp. HAW-EB3T, and compare it with the properties of known Shewanella species. We found that strain HAW-EB3T represents a novel species of Shewanella, designated Shewanella sediminis sp. nov.
Scanning (Hitachi S3000N) or negatively stained transmission (Hitachi H7500) electron micrographs of strain HAW-EB3T cells were prepared according to previously described protocols (Beveridge et al., 1994; Bozal et al., 2002).
NaCl tolerance was tested on pre-cooled Brewer's anaerobic agar (Becton Dickson; the reagent contained 0·5 % NaCl) that contained 0·5, 1·5, 2·0, 2·5, 3·0, 4·0, 6·0 or 8·0 % NaCl, followed by aerobic incubation at 10 °C for 5 days. Bacterial growth was estimated using the following equation: biomass=
x(D/2)2xc.f.u., where D represents mean diameter of colonies and one unit was equal to 50 µm. A Na+-free agar that contained 0·3 % bacto beef extract and 0·5 % bacto peptone was used to test growth in the absence of Na+.
Standard protocols were employed to test Gram reaction, catalase and oxidase activities, spore formation and acid production from various sugars (in Leifson Modified O-F medium) (Smibert & Krieg, 1994). Enzymic hydrolyses of various substrates including casein (skimmed milk, 50 %), gelatin (1 %), Tween 20, -40 and -80 (1 %), olive oil (1 %), lecithin (5 % egg yolk), pure chitin (0·3 %), alginate (1 %) and starch (1 %) were conducted using marine broth 2216 (Becton Dickinson) as a basal medium as described by Bowman (2001). Production of H2S from thiosulfate was tested in marine agar 2216 (Becton Dickinson) supplemented with NaS2O3 (1 %). DNase was determined using BBL DNA test agar (Becton Dickinson) supplemented with sea salts (4 %). API Rapid 20E and ID32A (BioMérieux) test kits were used to detect additional enzymic activites as listed in the species description. GN2 microplates (Biolog) were used for metabolism of sugars, organic acids, amino acids, peptides and nucleosides (Table 1). Cells of 0·9 OD600, higher than the 0·3 OD600 instructed by the manufacturer, were used for GN2 tests because no oxidation of substrates was found at 0·3 OD600. Aerobic utilization of substrates (0·1 %) as sole carbon and energy sources by washed cells of strain HAW-EB3T was evaluated in 24-well cell culture clusters containing NH4Cl (0·1 %) to serve as a nitrogen source in basic marine salts medium at pH 7·0 for 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks. The basic marine salt medium was supplemented with a trace metal solution as described previously (Zhao et al., 2003). The substrates that caused more than 15 % increases in OD600 (initial OD600, 0·1) were recorded as positive because the variation at the low OD600 measurement was 5–10 %; those exhibiting a change less than 15 % in OD600 were considered uncertain or negative. Reduction of electron acceptors was conducted on Brewer's anaerobic agar supplemented with 2 % NaCl and one of the substrates MnO2 (40 mM), ferric citrate (40 mM), amorphous iron oxide (FeOOH, 40 mM), trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) (5mM), nitrate (5 mM), nitrite (5 mM) or elemental sulfur (40 mM, stock solution prepared as described by Moser & Nealson, 1996), followed by incubation in anaerobic jars for 30 days. Clear zones around colonies were used to indicate Fe(III), Mn(IV) and sulfur reduction (Myers & Nealson, 1988). The enhanced growth of HAW-EB3T in the presence of TMAO, nitrate and nitrite was used as an indicator for dissimilatory reduction. All of the above physiological properties were tested at 10 °C unless noted otherwise. All of the phenotypic tests were run in triplicate.
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). Strain HAW-EB3T also grew anaerobically on marine agar 2216 and Brewer's anaerobic agar supplemented with 2 % NaCl. Scanning electron micrographs showed that strain HAW-EB3T was a rod-shaped bacterium (0·5–1 µm in diameter and 1·5–2·0 µm in length) (Fig. 1a). Negatively stained transmission electron micrographs showed the presence of a single polar flagellum (Fig. 1b), consistent with species of Shewanella (MacDonell & Colwell, 1985).
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; Brettar et al., 2002; Ivanova et al., 2001, 2003a, b, 2004a, b; Leonardo et al., 1999; Rossello-Mora et al., 1994; Satomi et al., 2003; Skerratt et al., 2002; Toffin et al., 2004; Venkateswaran et al., 1999; Vogel et al., 1997; Yoon et al., 2004a, b; Zhao et al., 2004b; Ziemke et al., 1998). Strain HAW-EB3T was a psychrophilic bacterium, growing at 4–25 °C with 10 °C as an optimum and no growth observed at 30 °C (Zhao et al., 2004b). In the case of salinity tolerance, strain HAW-EB3T was a Na+-requiring and moderately halophilic bacterium, growing at 1–4 % (w/w) NaCl with an optimum of 2 %. Like all species of Shewanella, strain HAW-EB3T reduced nitrate and TMAO under anaerobic conditions. In the case of acid substrate profiles, strain HAW-EB3T utilized acetate, pyruvate, butyrate and valerate, similar to several Shewanella species including Shewanella hanedai, Shewanella gelidimarina, Shewanella algae (Simidu et al., 1990) and Shewanella frigidimarina.
Most Shewanella species are reported to utilize glucose and/or N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, fructose, sucrose or galactose as aerobic substrate(s). In comparison to known Shewanella species regarding utilization of sugars, strain HAW-EB3T only utilized N-acetyl-D-glucosamine among the seven sugars tested (glucose, galactose, lactose, fructose, sucrose, mannose and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine), similar to S. gelidimarina (Bowman et al., 1997). More than half (16 species) of all known Shewanella species (28 species in total) including strain HAW-EB3T are fermentative. In the case of strain HAW-EB3T, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine was fermented, as observed for S. gelidimarina. Most other fermentative species (Shewanella benthica, S. hanedai, S. frigidimarina, Shewanella livingstonensis, Shewanella violacea, Shewanella affinis, Shewanella felis, Shewanella japonica, Shewanella pacifica and Shewanella waksmanii) fermented glucose, a few (Shewanella marinintestina, Shewanella schlegeliana and Shewanella sairae) fermented ribose.
In contrast to reports that most species of Shewanella are negative for chitinase, strain HAW-EB3T produced this enzyme, similar to S. hanedai and S. gelidimarina. More importantly, strain HAW-EB3T contained lysine decarboxylase, which is absent in all reported species of Shewanella. Strain HAW-EB3T also exhibited activities of arginine dehydrolase and ornithine decarboxylase, which are only found in a few species (Venkateswaran et al., 1999; Ivanova et al., 2004a, b; Bozal et al., 2002). Strain HAW-EB3T also did not exhibit gelatinase activity as found in most Shewanella species.
Thirty-two characteristics of strain HAW-EB3T and 28 other known species of Shewanella were used for further phenotypic cluster analyses using methods described by Eisen et al. (1998) (Cluster and Maple Tree View software, version 2.11; Pearson correlation similarity, uncentred, agglomerative hierarchical clustering, complete linkage). The 32 characteristics were: fermentation; growth factor requirement; growth in the presence of 0 %, 1 %, 2 %, 4 %, 6 %, 8 % and 10 % (w/v) NaCl; reduction of Fe(III) or TMAO; H2S formation; growth at 4, 21, 30, 35, 37 and 42 °C; lipase; gelatinase; chitinase; alginase; amylase; utilization of glucose, fructose, sucrose, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and citrate; alginine dehydrolase; ornithine decarboxylase and lysine decarboxylase. Data matrix values were prepared as follows: 4, positive; 2, weakly positive; 1, dependent or varying data; –2, negative; –, missing data. All species of Shewanella separated into two clusters (Fig. 2). The first cluster (I) was composed of Na+-requiring and psychrophilic species, including strain HAW-EB3T, two barophilic species (S. benthica and S. violacea), two bioluminescent species (Shewanella woodyi and S. hanedai), three marine intestinal inhabitants (S. marinintestina, S. schlegeliana and S. sairae) and one iron-reducer (S. gelidimarina). The second cluster (II) contained mainly non-Na+-requiring and 6 % NaCl-tolerant species with several exceptions (see legend to Fig. 2). The cluster analysis indicated that HAW-EB3T appeared most similar to S. gelidimarina and S. woodyi of cluster I (Fig. 2). However, strain HAW-EB3T was significantly different from S. gelidimarina and S. woodyi and other related species of Shewanella in many phenotypic characteristics as listed in Table 1
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and Fay & Richli (1991), cellular fatty acids were extracted from cells (pre-grown in marine broth 2216 at 10 °C for 5 days) and analysed from their methyl esters or 2-alkenyl-4,4-dimethyloxazoline-derivatives on a GC-MS system composed of a HP5-MS capillary column (50 m) and a MS detector (6890 MSD 5973, Agilent Technologies). A standard mixture of bacterial fatty acid methyl esters (CP Mix; Matreya) was used as a reference. Fatty acids found in HAW-EB3T were similar to those of Shewanella species in cluster I (Fig. 2; Table 2; Russell & Nichols, 1999). Like S. gelidimarina, S. benthica and S. hanedai (Bowman et al., 1997; Satomi et al., 2003; Brettar et al., 2002), strain HAW-EB3T produced unsaturated palmitoleic acid C16 : 1
7 (33 %) and saturated palmitoleic acid C16 : 0 (17 %) as major acids. HAW-EB3T also produced eicosapentaenoic acid (C20 : 53) as found in most species of Shewanella in cluster I (Fig. 2).
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) and S. hanedai ATCC 33224T (grown in Photobacterium broth at 10 °C; Jensen et al., 1980) purchased from the American Type Culture Collection. Briefly, quinones extracted using the method described by Collins (1985), were identified by their UV spectra (Collins, 1994) of chromatographic peaks obtained on a Waters HPLC-UV system (Discovery C18 column, 25 cmx4·6 mmx5 µm, Supelco; 70 % methanol/30 % acetonitrile at rate of 1·5 ml min–1; 40 °C; 2996 photodiode array UV detector) and by their mass spectra (Nishijima et al., 1997; Akagawa-Matsushita et al., 1992) obtained on a LC/UV-MS system (Platform LC fronted with Agilent 1100 Micromass). Menaquinone (MK)-4 (6H) (vitamin K1), MK-4 (vitamin K2), ubiquinone (Q)-6 and -10 (Aldrich) were used as standards. Strain HAW-EB3T produced (A273, relative to the sum of total quinones) Q-7 (33·7 %), Q-8 (13·5 %), MK-7 (48·6 %) and methylmenaquinone (MMK)-7 (4·2 %), consistent with quinone profiles previously reported for Shewanella species (Akagawa-Matsushita et al., 1992; Venkateswaran et al., 1999; Bozal et al., 2002) and those of S. woodyi (Q-7, 53·3 %; Q-8, 34·5 %; MK-7, 9·2 %; MMK-7, 2·9 %) and S. hanedai (Q-7, 11 %; Q-8, 24 %; MK-7, 56 %; MMK-7, 9 %) obtained in the present study (Supplementary Table, available in IJSEM Online).
DNA extraction, amplification and sequencing were conducted according to standard molecular biology methods (Sambrook & Russell, 2001). The universal primers described previously by Yoon et al. (1998) were used for amplification of the 16S rRNA gene. The 16S rRNA gene (1288 bases) sequence was compared to published sequences using BLAST. The gene sequences of the isolate and those of closely related species were aligned using CLUSTAL_X (1.81). The neighbour-joining method (in the MEGA2 package; Kumar et al., 2001), based on the pair-wise nucleotide distance of the Kimura two-parameter, was used to build the phylogenetic tree. The number of bootstrap repetitions was 4000.
Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of strain HAW-EB3T and known species of Shewanella clearly showed that strain HAW-EB3T belonged to the Shewanella genus (Fig. 3). The 16S rRNA gene sequence cluster analysis separated all species of Shewanella into two clusters (I' and II'; Fig. 3) similar to those obtained by phenotypic analysis (Fig. 2). Cluster I' contained mainly Na+-requiring species (13 out of 16) whereas cluster II' contained mainly non-Na+-requiring species (10 out of 13). The isolate HAW-EB3T 16S rRNA gene sequence displayed 97·4 % similarity to those of the known Shewanella species and was found to best match those in cluster I'.
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, strains sharing less than 97·5 % 16S rRNA gene similarity are unlikely to belong to the same species. Therefore strain HAW-EB3T was not likely to be a strain belonging to S. hanedai or S. woodyi, but rather possibly represented a new species.
The sequence of gyrB (coding the 
-unit of DNA topoisomerase II) has been used to differentiate species similar in their 16S rRNA genes sequences (Fox et al., 1992; Stackebrandt & Goebel, 1994). To further differentiate strain HAW-EB3T from related Shewanella species, we also sequenced gyrB (1007 bases) of strain HAW-EB3T using previously described universal primers (Yamamoto & Harayama, 1995; Venkateswaran et al., 1998a), and compared its sequence with those of other Shewanella species (Fig. 4). The gyrB sequence similarity between HAW-EB3T and other species of Shewanella (S. hanedai, 82·7 %; S. woodyi, 85·4 %; S. gelidimarina, 79·6 %; S. benthica, 82·6 %) (Fig. 4) was found to be lower than the 90 % species cut-off value proposed by Venkateswaran et al. (1999) for Shewanella. We also found that the similarity of gyrB between species of Shewanella ranged from 60 % to 90 %, with the exception of S. marinintestina and S. sairae, which were 92·2 % similar (Fig. 4). The sequence data on gyrB further supported that HAW-EB3T represented a new species of Shewanella.
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) was used to prepare and purify genomic DNA (1–5 mg) for DNA–DNA hybridization and G+C content measurement. DNA–DNA hybridization was determined based on the spectrophotometric measurement of renaturation rates as described by Johnson (1985b) and Bowman et al. (1998). As defined by Wayne et al. (1987), a species only includes those strains with approximately 70 % or greater genomic DNA–DNA relatedness. In the present study we found that the genomic DNA of strain HAW-EB3T was less than 70 % related to that of S. hanedai (with 25 % DNA relatedness) and S. woodyi (with 17·8 % DNA relatedness) (n=5), confirming that it represents a new species of Shewanella. The genetic finding was also consistent with the significant phenotypic difference between strain HAW-EB3T and the two known bioluminescent species, S. hanedai and S. woodyi (Table 1).
According to the UV absorbance (A269/A280) at pH 3·0 and the thermal melting profile (Tm) of genomic DNA as described by Johnson (1985a), the G+C content of HAW-EB3T was found to be 45 mol%, consistent with the reported values for other species of Shewanella (39–53 %) (Table 1).
Based on the previous discussions of phenotypic, chemotaxonomic (fatty acid and quinone compositions) and genetic data (Gillis et al., 2001), we propose that HAW-EB3T represents a new species of Shewanella, designated Shewanella sediminis sp. nov.
Description of Shewanella sediminis sp. nov.
Shewanella sediminis (se.di.mi'nis. L. gen. n. sediminis of sediment, the source of the type strain).
Gram-negative, motile, non-spore-forming rods with mean length of 1·7 µm and mean diameter of 0·7 µm. Single flagellum is found at polar position. Biomass is slightly pinkish and non-bioluminescent. Growth at temperatures ranging from 4 to 25 °C, with 10 °C as optimum. No growth at 30 °C. Na+ is required for growth. Growth at 1–4 % NaCl, with 2 % NaCl as optimum, but no growth at 5 % NaCl. Anaerobic growth on Brewer's anaerobic agar supplemented with 2 % NaCl. TMAO, MnO2, nitrate, nitrite, thiosulfate and RDX are reduced. Negative for reduction of Fe(III) and elemental sulfur. Casein, chitin and DNA are hydrolysed, but not gelatin, alginate, starch and agar. Positive for catalase, oxidase, nitroreductase, arginine dehydrolase, ornithine decarboxylase, lysine decarboxylase, N-acetyl--D-glucosaminidase, -galactosidase, -galactosidase-6-phosphate, alkaline phosphatase, proline arylamidase, leucine glycine arylamidase, alanine arylamidase, and glutamyl glutamic acid arylamidase. Weakly positive for urease. Negative for -glucosidase and p-nitrophenylalanine deaminase by API rapid test, and for 
-galactosidase, -glucosidase, -glucosidase, -arabinosidase, -glucuronidase, mannose and raffinose fermentation, indole production, argine arylamidase, phenyl arylamidase, leucine arylamidase, pyroglutamic acid arylamidase, tyrosine arylamidase and glycine arylamidase by Rapid ID32 A test. H2S is produced from thiosulfate. By Biolog GN2 microplate test, positive for utilization of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, acetate, methyl pyruvate, propionate, DL-lactate, L-alanine, L-aspartate, glycyl-L-aspartic acid, glycine-L-glutamic acid, L-alanine-glycine, inosine, uridine and thymidine; weakly positive for Tween 80, -hydroxy butyrate, L-leucine and L-proline; negative for -cyclodextrin, dextrin, glycogen, adonitol, L-arabinose, D-arabitol, i-erythritol, D-fucose, m-inositol, lactulose, D-melibiose, methyl -D-glucoside, D-raffinose, L-rhamnose, D-trehalose, turanose, xylitol, succinic acid mono methyl ester, cis-aconitic acid, formic acid, D-galactonic acid lactone, D-galacturonic acid, D-glucosaminic acid, D-glucuronic acid, - or 
-hydroxybutyric acid, p-hydroxy phenylacetic acid, itaconic acid, -keto glutaric acid, -ketovaleric acid, quinic acid, D-saccharic acid, sebacic acid, bromosuccinic acid, succinamic acid, glucuronamide, L-alaninamide, D-alanine, hydroxy-L-proline, L-ornithine, L-pyroglutamic acid, D-serine, DL-carnitine, -aminobutyric acid, urocanic acid, phenylethylamine, 2-aminoethanol, 2,3-butanediol, DL--glycerolphosphate, -D-glucose 1-phosphate and D-glucose 6-phosphate. N-acetyl-D-glucosamine is oxidized and fermented to acid. Galactose, lactose, fructose, sucrose, mannose and glucose are not oxidized or fermented to acids. N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine, Tween 40, Tween 80, acetate, succinate, butyrate, valerate, pyruvate, serine, proline, peptone and yeast extract are sole carbon and energy sources. Tween 20, malate, propionate and glutamic acid are weak carbon sources. Galactose, lactose, fructose, sucrose, mannose, glucose, citrate, lactate, formate, phenol, glycine, leucine and threonine are not utilized. Fatty acids C12 : 0 3-OH (7 %), C13 : 0 3-OH (8 %), C14 : 0 (4 %), Ci15 : 0 (8 %), C16 : 0 (17 %), C16 : 17 (33 %), C18 : 0 (2 %), C18 : 17 (7 %) and C20 : 53 (3 %) are produced. Quinone composition is Q-7 (33 %), Q-8 (13 %), MK-7 (49 %) and MMK-7 (4 %). The G+C content is 45 mol%.
The type strain, HAW-EB3T (=NCIMB 14036T=DSM 17055T), was isolated from a site 215 m deep and 50 nautical miles from Halifax Harbour, in the Atlantic Ocean.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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