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-Proteobacteria isolated from Okinawa Trough hydrothermal sediments
1 Subground Animalcule Retrieval (SUGAR) Project, Frontier Research System for Extremophiles, Japan Marine Science & Technology Center (JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka 237-0061, Japan
2 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, 3651 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0740, USA
Correspondence
Fumio Inagaki
inagaki{at}jamstec.go.jp
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT MAIN TEXTREFERENCES |
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-Proteobacteria, which includes phylotypes of vent epibiont and environmental sequences from global deep-sea cold seep and hydrothermal vent fields. On the basis of the physiological and molecular characteristics of this isolate, the type species of a novel genus, Sulfurovum lithotrophicum gen. nov., sp. nov., is proposed. The type strain is 42BKTT (=ATCC BAA-797T=JCM 12117T).
The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession number for the 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain 42BKTT is AB091292.
Graphs showing the effects of temperature, pH and sea salts and O2 concentration on growth of Sulfurovum lithotrophicum are available as supplementary material in IJSEM Online.
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MAIN TEXT |
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TOPABSTRACTMAIN TEXTREFERENCES |
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-Proteobacteria are predominantly recovered from global deep-sea hydrothermal systems (Moyer et al., 1995
; Polz & Cavanaugh, 1995; Reysenbach et al., 2000; Longnecker & Reysenbach, 2001; Campbell et al., 2001). Predominant prokaryotes in hydrothermal vent environments have been considered as one of the members within the -Proteobacteria; however, their physiological properties and ecological significance have long remained undefined because of their resistance to cultivation.
On the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequences of strains recovered from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal vent, the diverse uncultivated -proteobacterial assemblages were classified into six groups (groups A to F; Corre et al., 2001). Two genera within the -Proteobacteria, Caminibacter and Nautilia, have been isolated from the tube-dwelling polychaete Alvinella pompejana on the East Pacific Rise hydrothermal system (Alain et al., 2002; Miroshnichenko et al., 2002). Based on 16S rRNA gene sequences, these isolates were located within -proteobacterial group D. Hydrogenimonas thermophilus within the -proteobacterial group A was isolated from the Indian Ridge hydrothermal vent (Takai et al., 2004). These isolates were strictly anaerobic, moderately thermophilic hydrogen-oxidizers using elemental sulfur as a primary electron acceptor (Table 1). Recently, we reported that a variety of -proteobacteria have been successfully isolated from the mid-Okinawa Trough and the Central Indian Ridge hydrothermal vent systems (Takai et al., 2003). The most frequently isolated phylotypes were affiliated to the -proteobacterial group B, in line with the results of a culture-independent molecular ecological survey at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal vent (Corre et al., 2001). Sulfurimonas autotrophica, representing the most abundantly cultivated -proteobacterial group from the Okinawa hydrothermal vent systems, was recently characterized as a mesophilic, obligatory aerobic sulfur- and thiosulfate-oxidizing bacterium (Inagaki et al., 2003). Here we report the characterization of a novel mesophilic strain representative of -proteobacterial group F from deep-sea hydrothermal sediment at the Iheya North site in the mid-Okinawa Trough back-arc hydrothermal system.
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). The MJ synthetic sea water was composed (l–1) of 30·0 g NaCl, 0·14 g CaCl2.2H2O, 3·40 g MgSO4, 4·18 g MgCl2, 0·14 g K2HPO4, 0·33 g KCl, 0·25 g NH4Cl, 0·5 mg NiCl2.6H2O, 0·5 mg Na2SeO3.5H2O, 0·01 g FeCl2 and 10 ml trace mineral solution (Balch et al., 1979).
Enrichment and purification
A portion of 500 µl slurry was inoculated into 5 ml MJ basal medium without sodium sulfide, made up in MJ synthetic water: 0·15 % (w/v) NaHCO3, 0·15 % (w/v) Na2S2O3.5H2O and 0·01 % (v/v) vitamin mixture (Balch et al., 1979). Gas mixtures of N2/CO2/O2 (77 : 17 : 6, 150 kPa) were used in the headspace. The gas-to-liquid ratio was 1 : 2 (v/v). The inoculated culture medium was incubated at room temperature (approximately 25 °C) with continuous shaking in the laboratory. The enrichment culture contained non-motile, small, spherical cells, and these were purified by the dilution-to-extinction technique of Baross (1995). The culture in the tube showing growth at the highest dilution was designated strain 42BKTT. Purity was confirmed routinely by microscopic examination and by repeated partial sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene using several PCR primers. Strain 42BKTT was routinely cultivated with MJ-N basal medium containing 0·2 % (w/v) NaNO3 supplemented in MJ basal medium instead of oxygen as a sole electron acceptor (pH 6·8). The gas mixture in the headspace of the MJ-N basal medium was N2/CO2 (80 : 20, 150 kPa).
Morphology
Cells were routinely observed under a phase-contrast Olympus BX51 microscope with the Olympus Camedia C3030 digital camera system. Cells grown in MJ-N basal medium at 30 °C in the mid-exponential phase of growth were negatively stained with 2 % (w/v) uranyl acetate and observed under a JEOL JEM-1210 transmission electron microscope at an accelerating voltage of 120 kV (Zillig et al., 1990). Cells of strain 42BKTT were Gram-negative, non-motile, coccoid to short rods resembling eggs, about 0·5–1·2 µm long and 0·4–0·8 µm wide (Fig. 1a). Thin sections were prepared after fixation in 4·0 % (w/v) paraformaldehyde overnight at room temperature, and then post-fixed with 1 % (v/v) OsO4. Specimens were embedded in Spurr's resin overnight and then cut using an ultramicrotome. Thin sections were stained in 2 % (w/v) uranyl acetate and observed with a JEOL JEM-1210 electron microscope. Thin sections revealed that the isolate had cell wall typical of Gram-negative bacteria (Fig. 1b). The formation of spores or flagella was never observed. The size and morphology of the cell were constant under aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
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). All experiments described below were conducted in duplicate. To determine the optimum growth temperature, cells were grown in MJ-N basal medium with continuous shaking as described above. Strain 42BKTT grew at a temperature range of 10–40 °C, with optimal growth at 28–30 °C (Table 1
). No growth was observed below 8 or above 42 °C. To determine the effect of pH on growth, the pH of MJ-N basal medium was adjusted to various levels with 10 mM acetate/acetic acid buffer (pH 4·0–5·5), MES (pH 5·0–6·5), PIPES (pH 6·5–7·0), HEPES (pH 7·0–8·0) and 10–30 mM Tris (pH 8·0 and above). The pH was checked after adding NaHCO3 and CO2 gas and was readjusted with H2SO4 or NaOH at room temperature if necessary. Growth occurred at pH 5·0–9·0, with optimal growth at around 6·5–7·0. Very weak growth was observed at pH 9·0 and 5·0 with continuous pH control during cell growth. No growth was observed at pH 4·5 or 9·5. The isolate required sea salts for growth. Strain 42BKTT grew over the salinity range of 5–60 g l–1, with optimum growth at 40 g total salt l–1 at 28 °C, pH 6·7. Oxygen sensitivity was examined using MJ basal medium without nitrate with a varying oxygen concentration in the headspace gas during incubation at 28 °C, pH 6·7 and 4·0 % (w/v) sea salt concentration. Growth of the isolate was observed at 1–7·5 % (v/v) oxygen; the optimum concentration was 5·0 % (v/v). No growth was observed without oxygen or with over 12 % (v/v) in headspace gas. No growth was observed with air in the headspace. In optimum growth conditions in MJ basal medium at 28 °C, pH 6·7, 4·0 % (w/v) sea salt and 5 % (v/v) oxygen, the final density of the cells was approximately 6·8x108 cells ml–1 in culture medium, with a doubling time of approximately 1·5 h. When the isolate was cultured in MJ-N basal medium under anoxic conditions, the final cell density was 3·1x108 cells ml–1. Cell growth in MJ-N basal medium was stimulated by adding sodium sulfide. Cell density in MJ-N basal medium containing 0·05 % Na2S.9H2O was approximately twofold higher than without Na2S.9H2O. However, the isolate did not utilize sulfide as an electron donor as described below. Graphs showing the effects of temperature, pH, sea salts and headspace oxygen concentration on growth are available as supplementary material in IJSEM Online.
Metabolic characteristics
Strain 42BKTT is a strict chemolithoautotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacterium capable of growth with elemental sulfur (S0) or thiosulfate as an electron donor (Table 1). To determine the end product of elemental sulfur or thiosulfate oxidation, the isolate was cultivated in medium supplemented with sulfate-free MJ synthetic sea water containing MgCl2 instead of MgSO4 (i.e. containing 7·58 g MgCl2 l–1); the sulfate concentration was monitored by HPLC (Shimadzu) (Inagaki et al., 2003). Results showed that almost all 7·5 mM thiosulfate was oxidized to 15 mM sulfate during cell growth, suggesting that sulfate was the end product of sulfur oxidation (Fig. 2). The following substrates added to the medium as potential electron donors did not support growth of the isolate: 0·02 % (w/v) Na2S.9H2O or cysteine hydrochloride, 5 or 0·5 mM each of Na2SO3, Na2S2O3, Na2S2O4, Na2S2O5, Na2S2O7 or Na2S2O8 (the last three compounds were obtained from Wako Purechemical; purity 64–67·4, >98 and >97 %, respectively), 0·1 or 0·01 % (w/v) each of yeast extract or peptone, 5 or 0·5 mM each of glucose, maltose, sucrose, methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol, formate, acetate, lactate, tartaric acid, fumarate, malate, pyruvate, ascorbic acid, succinate, nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) or thioglycolic acid, 0·01 % methionine or 5 mM sodium chlorate. The ability to use molecular hydrogen was examined by using a gas mixture of H2 and CO2 (80 : 20, 200 kPa) in the headspace with MJ-N basal medium, but no growth was observed. The isolate can use oxygen (<7·5 % in the headspace) and nitrate as an electron acceptor (Table 1, supplementary material). Other potential electron acceptors, such as 5 mM and 0·5 mM each of Na2SO4, Na2SO3 and NaNO2, fumarate, 1 % (v/v) ferrihydrite and manganese (IV), were unable to support growth. Production of ammonium and N2O by nitrate reduction was monitored by Nessler's solution (Wako) and Micro GC CP2002 gas chromatography (GL Sciences), respectively. Ammonium and N2O were not detected during cell growth. Cell growth was inhibited by the presence of 0·2 mM NaNO2 in MJ basal medium. No production of nitrite was observed by HPLC (Fig. 2).
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Fatty acid and DNA base compositions
The cellular fatty acid composition of the isolate and DNA G+C content of strain 42BKTT were analysed by GC/MS (Komagata & Suzuki, 1987) and HPLC (Tamaoka & Komagata, 1984), respectively. Cells grown in MJ-N basal medium at 28 °C in the late exponential growth phase were used for these analyses. The major cellular fatty acids were C16 : 1cis (53·7 %), C16 : 0 (31·3 %) and C18 : 0 (15·0 %). C14 : 0 was not detected in strain 42BKTT, although the fatty acids of Sulfurimonas autotrophica OK10T contained 8·4 % C14 : 0 (Inagaki et al., 2003). The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 48·0 mol%, a value higher than that of other -proteobacteria isolated from hydrothermal systems (Table 1).
Phylogenetic position and ecological significance
The PCR-amplified 16S rRNA gene (1406 bp) of strain 42BKTT was sequenced on both strands with a model 3100 automatic capillary sequencer (Perkin Elmer/Applied Biosystems). The 16S rRNA gene sequence was subjected to sequence similarity analysis against the nucleotide sequence databases of GenBank, EMBL and DDBJ using the gapped-BLAST and FASTA search algorithms. Similarity analysis indicated that the 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain 42BKTT was closely related to an uncultivated environmental sequence of a2b004 (98·5 %) detected from hydrothermal sediments in the Guaymas Basin (Teske et al., 2002) and NKB9 (96·2 %) from deep-sea cold seep sediments in the Nankai Trough (Li et al., 1999). The most closely related sequence of a previously cultivated and identified strain was Wolinella succinogenes ATCC 29543T (82·2 %). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the isolate was located within the uncultivated -proteobacterial group F (Corre et al., 2001) (Table 1, Fig. 3). Group F contains large numbers of environmental sequences obtained from deep-sea hydrothermal systems (Reysenbach et al., 2000; Teske et al., 2002) and cold seep environments (Li et al., 1999; Inagaki et al., 2002) (Fig. 3). Indeed, strain 42BKTT was isolated from low-temperature sediments associated with gas-bubbling in the mid-Okinawa Trough back-arc hydrothermal system. In addition, group F contains the episymbionts of both the alvinellid polychetes (bootstrap value 61 %) and shrimp ectosymbionts (bootstrap value 99 %) (Fig. 3). Physiological characteristics of the isolate were completely different from those of previously cultivated thermophilic -proteobacteria from deep-sea hydrothermal systems, such as the genera Caminibacter (Alain et al., 2002), Nautilia (Miroshnichenko et al., 2002) and Hydrogenimonas (Takai et al., 2004). The growth temperature ranges and the ability to utilize hydrogen or oxygen of these genera might fit with the geochemical settings of indigenous habitats. We have previously reported that members of -proteobacterial group F coexist with sulfate reducers within the 
-Proteobacteria in deep-sea cold seep environments (Inagaki et al., 2002). Mesophilic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria phylogenetically related to isolate 42BKTT might contribute to sulfur (re)cycling in global deep-sea environments.
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Cells are Gram-negative, non-motile, coccoid to short rods. Mesophilic facultative anaerobes that require sea salts for growth. Growth occurs chemolithoautotrophically with elemental sulfur or thiosulfate as an electron donor and with oxygen and nitrate as an electron acceptor using CO2 as the carbon source. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis locates the genus within the -Proteobacteria. The type species is Sulfurovum lithotrophicum.
Description of Sulfurovum lithotrophicum sp. nov.
Sulfurovum lithotrophicum (li.tho.tro'phi.cum. Gr. masc. n. lithos stone; Gr. adj. trophikos nursing, tending or feeding; N.L. neut. adj. lithotrophicum feeding on inorganic substrates).
Displays the following properties in addition to those given in the genus description. Cells are 0·5–1·2 µm long and 0·4–0·8 µm wide. The temperature range for growth is 10–40 °C (optimum 28–30 °C). The pH range for growth is 4·5–9·0 (optimum 6·5–7·0). Sea salts are required for growth; the concentration range is 10–60 g l–1 (optimum 40 g l–1). Ammonium is required as a nitrogen source for growth. Cells require nitrate or oxygen at <7·5 % in the headspace gas (optimum 5 %, 150 kPa) as an electron acceptor. Organic acids, alcohols, sugars and hydrogen do not support growth. The major cellular fatty acids are C16 : 1cis (53·7 %), C16 : 0 (31·3 %) and C18 : 0 (15·0 %). The G+C content of the DNA is 48·04±0·5 mol% (HPLC). The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession number for the 16S rRNA gene sequence of the type strain is AB091292.
The type strain, 42BKTT (=ATCC BAA-797T=JCM 12117T), was isolated from deep-sea hydrothermal sediments at the Iheya North hydrothermal field in the mid-Okinawa Trough, Japan.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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), sulfate (
), nitrate (
) and nitrite (
) concentrations during growth of strain 42BKTT. 
, Cell density.