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1 Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
2 Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
3 Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
Correspondence
Costantino Vetriani
vetriani{at}imcs.rutgers.edu
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ABSTRACT |
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The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession number for the 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain HB-1T is AY263403.
Graphs showing the growth of strain HB-1T under different conditions are available as supplementary material in IJSEM Online.
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MAIN TEXT |
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TOPABSTRACTMAIN TEXTREFERENCES |
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). Caminibacter hydrogeniphilus is a thermophilic 
-proteobacterium that was isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent (Alain et al., 2002). ‘Desulfurobacterium crinifex’ and Thermovibrio ruber are thermophilic bacteria that were isolated recently from a deep-sea and a shallow-water hydrothermal vent, respectively (Huber et al., 2002; Alain et al., 2003). T. ruber, together with its closest relatives, ‘D. crinifex’ and Desulfurobacterium thermolithotrophum, may represent a novel order within the phylum Aquificae (L'Haridon et al., 1998; Huber et al., 2002). Ammonifex degensii, C. hydrogeniphilus, ‘D. crinifex’ and T. ruber are able to use elemental sulfur (in addition to nitrate) as an alternative electron acceptor, with concomitant production of hydrogen sulfide. Pyrolobus fumarii is a hyperthermophilic archaeon (kingdom Crenarchaeota) that was isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent; it can grow by nitrate ammonification, thiosulfate reduction and microaerophilic hydrogen oxidation (Blöchl et al., 1997). Caldithrix abyssi was isolated recently from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent and represents a novel bacterial lineage, the phylogenetic position of which remains uncertain (Miroshnichenko et al., 2003). In contrast to Ammonifex degensii, ‘D. crinifex’, T. ruber and P. fumarii, which are all chemolithoautotrophs, C. abyssi can grow either chemoorganoheterotrophically by fermentation of proteinaceous substrates, or chemolithoheterotrophically by reduction of nitrate to ammonium, using yeast extract as a carbon source. Here, we describe the isolation and characterization of a novel thermophilic, chemolithoautotrophic, strictly anaerobic, nitrate-ammonifying bacterium that was isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent on the East Pacific Rise. Fragments of several active black smoker chimneys were collected from the East Pacific Rise (9° 50' N, 104° 18' W) at a depth of 2500 m, during two cruises aboard RV Atlantis (November 1999 and April 2000). Samples were collected by using the manipulator of the deep-submergence vehicle Alvin and stored in boxes on the submersible's working platform for the rest of the dive. On the surface, samples were transferred promptly to the ship's laboratory and subsamples were placed in stoppered tubes, reduced with a 5 % solution of Na2S and stored at 4 °C. Portions of the subsamples were used immediately for shipboard inocula by injecting 1 ml slurry (obtained by resuspension of about 1 g chimney rock in 1 ml anaerobic, sterile, artificial sea water) into 10 ml culture medium.
Isolate HB-1T was grown routinely in modified SME medium (Stetter et al., 1983), which contained (l-1): NaCl, 20·0 g; MgSO4.7H2O, 3·5 g; MgCl2.6H2O, 2·75 g; KCl, 0·325 g; KNO3, 1·0 g; NaBr, 50·0 mg; H3BO3, 15·0 mg; SrCl2.6H2O, 7·5 mg; (NH4)2SO4, 10·0 mg; KI, 0·05 mg; Na2WO2.2H2O, 0·1 mg; CaCl2.2H2O, 0·75 g; KH2PO4, 0·5 g; NiCl2.6H2O, 2·0 mg; resazurin, 1·0 mg; trace element solution, 10 ml (Balch et al., 1979). After solubilization, the medium was heated to boiling point and then cooled under a stream of N2 for 30 min. Na2S.9H2O (0·5 g l-1) was added to reduce the medium and the pH was adjusted to 5·5 with H2SO4. The medium was then aliquoted (10 ml portions) into tightly stoppered tubes (Bellco Glass) and autoclaved (200 kPa, 20 min, 121 °C). Prior to inoculation, the medium was supplemented aseptically with 0·25 ml MES buffer (20 %, w/v; pH 5·5), 0·1 ml KNO3 (10 %, w/v) and 0·04 ml Na2S.9H2O (3 %, w/v; pH 7·0); it was pressurized with H2/CO2 (80 : 20; 200 kPa). Cultures were incubated at 75 °C. Stocks of strain HB-1T for long-term storage were prepared by supplementing 1 ml culture with 50 µl DMSO (Fisher Scientific) and were stored at -80 °C. Growth of strain HB-1T was determined by direct counts of acridine orange-stained cells by epifluorescence microscopy, using an ocular grid. All growth experiments were carried out in duplicate. Growth rates (µ; h-1) were estimated as: µ=(ln N2-ln N1)/(t2-t1), where N2 and N1 are no. cells ml-1 at time (in h) t2-t1. Generation times (tg; h) were calculated as: tg=(ln2)/µ.
To determine the optimal growth temperature for strain HB-1T, cultures were incubated between 50 and 85 °C (at 5 °C intervals). All other experiments were carried out at 75 °C. To determine optimal salt requirement, the concentration of NaCl was varied between 0 and 5 % (w/v). The influence of pH on growth was determined between pH 4·0 and 8·5 by using the following buffers at a concentration of 10 mM: acetate at pH 4·0, 4·5 and 5·0; MES at pH 5·5 and 6·0; PIPES at pH 6·5, 7·0 and 7·5; and Tris at pH 8·0 and 8·5. Susceptibility of strain HB-1T to antibiotics was tested in the presence of ampicillin, chloramphenicol, kanamycin and streptomycin (each at 100 µg ml-1). All antibiotics were added aseptically to the culture medium before incubation at 75 °C. To investigate the effect of organic substrates on the growth of strain HB-1T, acetate, formate, lactate, peptone, tryptone, Casamino acids, D-(+)-glucose and sucrose (each at 2 g l-1) and yeast extract (at 0·1 and 1 g l-1) were added to the medium under an H2/CO2 gas phase (80 : 20; 200 kPa). The same compounds at the same concentrations were also tested as possible energy and/or carbon sources by using N2/CO2 (80 : 20; 200 kPa), N2 (100 %; 200 kPa) or H2 (100 %; 200 kPa) as the gas phase. In order to determine the ability of strain HB-1T to use alternative electron acceptors, thiosulfate (0·1 %, w/v), sulfite (0·1 %, w/v), sulfur (3 %, w/v) and oxygen (0·5 %) were used to supplement nitrate-depleted medium. Cells were stained routinely with 0·1 % acridine orange and visualized with an Olympus BX 60 microscope with an oil-immersion UPlanF1 100x/1.3 objective lens. For ultrathin sections, cells were fixed for 3 h in Karnovsky's fixative (formaldehyde, 4 % v/v and glutaraldehyde, 1 % v/v, in 0·1 M Millonig's phosphate buffer, pH 7·3), followed by incubation in 1 % osmium tetroxide for 1 h and dehydration in a graded ethanol series. Cells were then embedded in Epon-Araldite and sectioned with a diamond knife by using an LKB 2088 ultramicrotome (LKB-Produkter). Thin sections were stained with 5 % uranyl acetate (w/v) solution in 50 % ethanol for 15 min and then with 0·5 % lead citrate (w/v) solution in CO2-free, double-distilled water for 2 min. For direct visualization, cells were fixed and applied onto a copper Formvar/carbon-coated grid. The grids were air-dried and shadowed with 2 nm Pt/C (angle, 15°) by using a High Vacuum Freeze-Etch unit BAF 300 (Balzers). Electron micrographs were taken on a model JEM 100 CX transmission electron microscope (JEOL).
Quantitative nitrate, nitrite and NH3 determinations were carried out spectrometrically by using a Lachat QuikChem automated ion analyser according to the manufacturer's specifications (Diamond, 1993). Qualitative hydrogen sulfide determination was carried out according to Cord-Ruwisch (1985). For the determination of catalase activity, cells were collected by centrifugation from duplicate 15 ml overnight cultures, resuspended in 70 µl 3 % H2O2 solution and incubated at both 75 °C and room temperature. A cell-free 3 % H2O2 solution was used as a negative control. The presence of catalase was detected by the formation of gas bubbles.
DNA was isolated from T. ruber and HB-1T cells (about 2·5 g wet wt) by using a French pressure cell (Thermo Spectronic) and was purified by chromatography on hydroxyapatite, as described by Cashion et al. (1977). DNA–DNA hybridization was carried out as described by De Ley et al. (1970) with the modifications described by Huss et al. (1983) and Escara & Hutton (1980), using a model 2600 spectrophotometer equipped with a model 2527-R thermoprogrammer and plotter (Gilford Instrument Laboratories). Renaturation rates were computed with the TRANSFER.BAS program of Jahnke (1992). The determination of DNA base composition was carried out according to Mesbah et al. (1989). The 16S rRNA gene was amplified selectively from genomic DNA by PCR, as described previously (Vetriani et al., 1999), using primers 27F (5'-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3') (Giovannoni, 1991) and 1517R (5'-ACGGCTACCTTGTTACGACTT-3') (Weisburg et al., 1991). The amplified 16S rRNA gene was cloned in pCR II plasmid vector (Invitrogen) and the resulting ligation product was used to transform competent Escherichia coli Top10F' cells. A recombinant clone was selected and the sequence of the 16S rRNA gene was determined for both strands on an ABI 310 automated sequencer (Applied Biosystems). Phylogenetic analyses were carried out as described previously (Vetriani et al., 1999).
Enrichment cultures for thermophilic, chemolithotrophic organisms were obtained by inoculating 10 ml anaerobic SME medium (Stetter et al., 1983), supplemented with 0·1 % nitrate, with approximately 1 ml slurry obtained from high-temperature active vents located on the East Pacific Rise at 9° 50' N. Hydrothermal fluid temperatures at the time of sampling were 327–353 °C. Several enrichment cultures were initiated aboard ship and were incubated at 80 °C without shaking, with H2/CO2 as the gas phase (80 : 20; 200 kPa). Within 1–2 days incubation, turbidity caused by cell growth was observed and 0·1 ml was transferred successfully to fresh medium. Upon return to the laboratory, seven independent enrichment cultures, which originated from four different active chimneys (Ty, Q, Bio9' and Tubeworm Pillar vents), showed consistent growth after repeated transfers to fresh medium. All cultures contained short rods that were similar in morphology but slightly different in size and were designated as strains HB-1T–HB-7. Preliminary 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis showed that all strains were closely related. One enrichment culture was selected and the organism was purified by four series of end-point dilutions. The resulting isolate was designated strain HB-1T.
Cells of HB-1T were short rods, about 1·0 µm in length and 0·6 µm in width (Fig. 1a–c). Cells stained Gram-negative. Most ultrathin sections revealed large low-electron-density areas within the cytoplasm that did not appear to be delimited by a membrane (Fig. 1a). These areas may therefore be inclusions that contain energy-storage polymers. Cytoplasmic protrusions were often observed in ultrathin sections (Fig. 1a). The cell envelope of strain HB-1T included a cytoplasmic membrane that was surrounded by a 20 nm thick, low-electron-density layer (Fig. 1b). The organism was motile and possessed one to two terminal flagella, which were observed in electron micrographs of platinum-shadowed cells (Fig. 1c). Cells divided by septum formation and the presence of endospores was not observed. Cell pellets exhibited a bright orange colour.
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). Nitrite was not detected in the culture medium. When nitrate was replaced by sulfur in the culture medium, strain HB-1T was capable of growth and H2S was detected as the final metabolic product (data not shown). However, when freshly grown cells of strain HB-1T were transferred from nitrate- to sulfur-containing medium, they underwent a 12 h lag phase and the final number of cells was about three- to fourfold lower than that of cells grown with nitrate as the electron acceptor, even after repeated transfers in sulfur-containing media. Thiosulfate, sulfite and oxygen (0·5 % v/v) were not used as electron acceptors when strain HB-1T was incubated in the presence of molecular hydrogen as an electron donor. Growth of HB-1T was inhibited by the presence of oxygen (0·5 %) in nitrate-containing media. In contrast, Aquifex pyrophilus showed robust growth under similar culture conditions with H2/CO2/O2 (79·75 : 19·75 : 0·5; 200 kPa) as the gas phase.
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The genomic DNA G+C content of strain HB-1T, determined by HPLC analysis of deoxyribonucleosides, was 54·6 mol%. DNA–DNA hybridization experiments showed relatively low similarity between strain HB-1T and T. ruber (55·5 %). Phylogenetic analyses of the 16S rRNA gene sequence of strain HB-1T, along with those of two closely related strains (designated as HB-2 and HB-4), were performed by using both evolutionary distance and maximum-likelihood methods for tree reconstruction. Both approaches were consistent in placing strain HB-1T, as well as strains HB-2 and HB-4, within a deep branch of the bacterial phylum Aquificae (Fig. 3). In all analyses, the closest relative of strain HB-1T was T. ruber (Huber et al., 2002), the 16S rRNA gene sequence of which was 94·4 % similar to that of HB-1T. Furthermore, strain HB-1T was closely related (about 94 % sequence similarity) to both ‘D. crinifex’ and D. thermolithotrophum (L'Haridon et al., 1998; Alain et al., 2003). Both methods of phylogenetic inference placed strain HB-1T in a distinct cluster with its close relatives HB-2 and HB-4 (>98 % sequence similarity). However, the two methods provided two slightly different scenarios in terms of the phylogenetic position of T. ruber relative to that of strain HB-1T. Whilst trees reconstructed by using the distance method placed T. ruber consistently with the ‘D. crinifex’ cluster (data not shown), maximum-likelihood analysis, supported by high bootstrap values, placed this organism closer to the HB cluster (Fig. 3). Detailed analysis of the secondary structure of the 16S rRNA gene of strain HB-1T revealed that the helix found at positions 198–219 (E. coli numbering) shares a structural feature that is common to most members of the order Aquificales (Burggraf et al., 1992; Reysenbach et al., 1994).
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). However, strain HB-1T can be differentiated from T. ruber on the basis of its morphology (straight rod versus vibrioid), size, growth inhibition under certain culture conditions, pH and NaCl concentration for optimal growth and its DNA G+C content (Table 1). In particular, the genomic DNA G+C content of strain HB-1T (54·6 mol%) is higher than those of T. ruber (46 mol%), D. thermolithotrophum (35 mol%) and other representatives of the Aquificales (the G+C content of which varies between 35 and 47·5 mol%). Furthermore, as the DNA–DNA similarity of strain HB-1T and T. ruber is only 55·5 %, the two organisms are not related at the species level (Wayne et al., 1987). Therefore, strain HB-1T represents a novel species within the genus Thermovibrio, for which we propose the name Thermovibrio ammonificans (type strain, HB-1T).
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). The mineral composition of the chimneys determines their porosity, which in turn affects the steep thermal and chemical (oxygen and nutrients) gradients within their walls. The availability of redox couples for microbial processes depends largely on these gradients, which therefore influence the distribution of micro-organisms within chimney walls. T. ammonificans HB-1T appears to be well-adapted to inhabit the walls of active chimneys; it obtains energy from molecular hydrogen, which is generally enriched in vent fluids (Lilley et al., 1993), and it uses nitrate, which is present in the bottom sea water (Millero, 1996), as an electron acceptor. Its optimal growth conditions, with a temperature of 75 °C, a slightly acidic pH and a salt concentration lower than that of sea water, reflect conditions that may be found within chimney walls, where hot, reduced hydrothermal fluids mix with cold, oxygenated sea water. Whilst T. ammonificans HB-1T is a strict anaerobe, the presence of moderate catalase activity could provide protection from occasional exposure to toxic products of oxygen metabolism, which is likely to occur in a biotope that is characterized by highly fluctuating redox conditions.
Within deep-sea hydrothermal systems, ammonium has been found in appreciable quantities only in the end-member fluids of vents from the Guaymas Basin and from both the Endeavour and Explorer segments of the Juan de Fuca Ridge (Tunnicliffe et al., 1986; Lilley et al., 1993; Von Damm, 1995). In all cases, the high concentration of ammonium has been attributed to the decomposition of sub-sea floor organic matter that is associated with buried sediments, suggesting that ammonium is not a direct product of geothermal processes (Edmond & Von Damm, 1985; Lilley et al., 1993). However, a recent study indicates that fluids at 65 °C, which are obtained from ageing ocean crust on the flanks of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, are highly enriched with ammonium that may be of microbial origin (Cowen et al., 2003). This observation suggests the occurrence of a sub-sea floor community of nitrate-ammonifying organisms. Whilst the relative abundance of nitrate-ammonifying organisms in geothermal environments is not known, they could play a critical ecological role. In principle, the ammonium produced by these organisms as a result of nitrate respiration could be used both as a nitrogen source by other vent inhabitants and as an electron donor by chemolithoautotrophic, ammonia-oxidizing bacteria. In either case, T. ammonificans-like organisms could play a pivotal role in nitrogen cycling at deep-sea hydrothermal vents.
Description of Thermovibrio ammonificans sp. nov.
Thermovibrio ammonificans (am.mo.ni'fi.cans. N.L. n. ammonium ammonium; L. v. facere to make; N.L. part. adj. ammonificans ammonifying).
Cells are short rods, about 1·0 µm in length and 0·6 µm in width. Motile by polar flagellation. Gram-negative. Growth occurs between 60 and 80 °C, 0·5 and 4·5 % NaCl and pH 5 and 7. Optimal growth conditions are 75 °C, 2 % NaCl and pH 5·5 (generation time, 1·57 h). Strictly anaerobic. Growth occurs under chemolithoautotrophic conditions in the presence of H2 and CO2, with nitrate or sulfur as electron acceptors and concomitant formation of ammonium or hydrogen sulfide, respectively. Thiosulfate, sulfite and oxygen are not used as electron acceptors. Acetate, formate, lactate and yeast extract (1 g l-1) inhibit growth. No chemoorganoheterotrophic growth occurs on peptone, tryptone, yeast extract (0·1 g l-1), Casamino acids, glucose or sucrose. Sensitive to ampicillin and chloramphenicol, but resistant to kanamycin and streptomycin (each at 100 mg ml-1). Catalase-positive. Genomic DNA G+C content is 54·6 mol%.
The type strain is HB-1T (=DSM 15698T=JCM 12110T), which was isolated from the walls of an active deep-sea hydrothermal vent chimney on the East Pacific Rise at 9° 50' N.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTMAIN TEXTREFERENCES |
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), nitrate consumption (
) and ammonium formation (
) during growth of strain HB-1T.