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1 Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, H. v. Suchtelenweg 4, 6703 CT Wageningen, The Netherlands
2 Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-CEMO), Postbus 140, 4400 AC Yerseke, The Netherlands
Correspondence
Maurice L. G. C. Luijten
m.l.g.c.luijten{at}mep.tno.nl
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Published online ahead of print on 11 October 2002 as DOI 10.1099/ijs.0.02417-0.
The GenBank accession number for the 16S rDNA sequence of strain PCE-M2T is AF218076.
Present address: TNO Environment, Energy and Process Innovation, PO Box 342, 7300 AH, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands. 
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). It is a suspected carcinogen and is thought to be persistent under aerobic conditions (Bouwer & McCarty, 1983; Fathepure et al., 1987). However, Ryoo et al. (2000) recently reported the aerobic conversion of PCE by toluene-o-xylene monooxygenase of Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1. Under anaerobic conditions, PCE can be reductively dechlorinated via trichloroethene, dichloroethene and vinyl chloride to the non-toxic end-products ethene (DiStefano et al., 1991; Freedman & Gossett, 1989) and ethane (de Bruin et al., 1992).
Over the last decade, several bacteria that are able to couple the anaerobic reductive dechlorination of PCE to growth have been isolated. This respiratory process is also known as halorespiration. PCE is reduced to either trichloroethene or dichloroethene by, for example, Dehalospirillum multivorans, two Dehalobacter species and several Desulfitobacterium species (Scholz-Muramatsu et al., 1995; Holliger et al., 1993; Wild et al., 1996; Gerritse et al., 1996, 1999; Miller et al., 1997). One organism, ‘Dehalococcoides ethenogenes’, is able to reduce PCE to vinyl chloride, and couples these steps to energy conservation. Vinyl chloride is dechlorinated further to ethene by this organism, but this final reduction step is not coupled to growth (Maymo-Gatell et al., 1997, 1999). The ecological, physiological and technological aspects of halorespiring organisms have been reviewed in detail (El Fantroussi et al., 1998; Holliger et al., 1998; Middeldorp et al., 1999).
Here, we describe the isolation of a novel organism from soil from a polluted site in The Netherlands that is able to reduce PCE to cis-dichloroethene. Initial analysis showed our isolate to have high similarity to members of the genus Sulfurospirillum and to Dehalospirillum multivorans. Therefore, we included data for the type strains of Sulfurospirillum barnesii, Sulfurospirillum deleyianum, Sulfurospirillum arsenophilum, Sulfurospirillum arcachonense and Dehalospirillum multivorans. Evaluation of all physiological and phylogenetic properties makes it clear that the new isolate, strain PCE-M2T, is a member of the genus Sulfurospirillum. We propose strain PCE-M2T as the type strain of a novel species within the genus Sulfurospirillum, Sulfurospirillum halorespirans sp. nov. Furthermore, on the basis of all available data, we propose to reclassify Dehalospirillum multivorans as Sulfurospirillum multivorans comb. nov.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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. A liquid sample from one of these columns was used to start the enrichment culture.
Anaerobic medium and experimental set-up.
A phosphate-/bicarbonate-buffered medium with a low chloride concentration, as described by Holliger et al. (1993), was used for the experiments. Electron acceptors and donors were added from aqueous, concentrated, sterile stock solutions to respective final concentrations of 10 and 25 mM, unless otherwise stated. PCE was added from a concentrated (1 M) stock solution in hexadecane. Hexadecane was not converted during experiments by the different bacteria. Yeast extract was omitted from the medium unless otherwise stated.
Incubations were carried out in 117 ml serum bottles containing 20 ml anaerobic medium. The headspace consisted of N2/CO2 (80 : 20) or H2/CO2 (80 : 20); the latter was used when molecular hydrogen was used as electron donor. Acetate was added as a carbon source when molecular hydrogen or formate was used as electron donor. For isolation purposes, the roll-tube method was used. The medium was solidified with Noble agar (22 g l-1; Difco).
Organisms.
Dehalospirillum multivorans DSM 12446T, S. deleyianum DSM 6946T, S. arcachonense DSM 9755T and S. arsenophilum DSM 10659T were purchased from the DSMZ. S. barnesii ATCC 700032T was obtained from the ATCC.
Escherichia coli XL-1 Blue (Stratagene) was used as the host for cloning vectors. The strain was grown in Luria–Bertani medium at 37 °C (Sambrook et al., 1989) and ampicillin was added at 100 µg ml-1 when appropriate.
DNA analyses.
Both G+C-content analysis and DNA–DNA hybridization were performed at the DSMZ. DNA was isolated by chromatography with hydroxyapatite (Cashion et al., 1977). G+C contents were determined using HPLC, as described by Mesbah et al. (1989). DNA–DNA hybridizations were carried out as described by De Ley et al. (1970), with the modifications described by Huß et al. (1983) and Escara & Hutton (1980). Renaturation rates were computed according to Jahnke (1992).
Analytical techniques.
Chloride anion concentrations were determined with a Micro-chlor-o-counter (Marius). Prior to analysis, 0·6 ml samples were acidified with 10 µl pure sulfuric acid and purged for 5 min with nitrogen gas to eliminate sulfide anions, which interfered with the chloride measurement. Volatile fatty acids were determined by HPLC, as described by Scholten & Stams (1995). Inorganic anions were separated on a dionex column as described by the same authors.
All chlorinated ethenes and ethene were determined qualitatively in headspace samples using a 438A Chrompack Packard gas chromatograph. The gas chromatograph was equipped with a flame-ionization detector connected to a capillary column [25 mx0·32 mm inner diameter; df 10 µm; 100 kPa N2 (Poraplot Q; Chrompack)] and a splitter injector (ratio 1 : 10). The injector and detector temperatures were respectively 100 and 250 °C. The column temperature was initially 50 °C for 1 min and was then increased by 39 °C min-1 to 210 °C; finally, the temperature was kept at 210 °C for 7 min.
Fatty acid composition.
Bacterial cultures were harvested by centrifugation (20 000 g, 20 min, 4 °C) and pellets were extracted directly with a modified Bligh–Dyer extraction. The total lipid extract was fractionated on silicic acid and mild alkaline transmethylation was used to yield fatty acid methyl esters from the phospholipid fraction. Concentrations of individual polar-lipid fatty acids as fatty acid methyl esters were determined by using a capillary GC/flame-ionization detector. Identification of polar-lipid fatty acids was based on comparison of retention-time data with known standards (for further details, see Boschker et al., 1999).
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
For TEM, cells were fixed for 2 h in 2·5 % (v/v) glutaraldehyde in 0·1 M sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7·2) at 0 °C. After the cells had been rinsed in the same buffer, they were subjected to post-fixation using 1 % (w/v) OsO4 and 2·5 % (w/v) K2Cr2O7 for 1 h at room temperature. Finally, the cells were post-stained in 1 % (w/v) uranyl acetate. After sectioning, micrographs were taken with a Philips EM400 transmission electron microscope.
Amplification of 16S rDNA, cloning and sequencing.
Chromosomal DNA of strain PCE-M2T was isolated as described previously (Van de Pas et al., 1999). The 16S rDNA was amplified with a GeneAmp PCR System 2400 thermocycler (Perkin-Elmer-Cetus). After preheating to 94 °C for 2 min, 35 amplification cycles of denaturation at 94 °C for 20 s, primer annealing at 50 °C for 30 s and elongation at 72 °C for 90 s were performed. A final extension of 7 min at 68 °C was performed. The PCRs (50 µl) contained 10 pmol primers 8f [5'-CACGGATCCAGAGTTTGAT(C/T)(A/C)TGGCTCAG-3'] and 1510r [5'-GTGAAGCTTACGG(C/T)TACCTTGTTACGACTT-3'] (Lane, 1991), 2 mM MgCl2, 200 µM each of dATP, dCTP, dGTP and TTP and 1 U Expand Long Template enzyme mixture (Roche Diagnostics). PCR products were purified by the QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen) and cloned into E. coli XL-1 Blue by using the pGEM-T plasmid vector (Promega). Plasmid DNA was isolated from E. coli by using the alkaline lysis method, and standard DNA manipulations were performed according to established procedures (Sambrook et al., 1989) and manufacturers' instructions. Restriction enzymes were purchased from Life Technologies.
DNA sequencing was performed using a LiCor DNA sequencer 4000L. Plasmid DNA used for sequencing reactions was purified with the QIAprep Spin Miniprep kit (Qiagen). Reactions were performed using the Thermo Sequenase fluorescent labelled primer cycle sequencing kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Infrared dye (IRD800)-labelled oligonucleotides were purchased from MWG Biotech. The sequence was determined using labelled primers 515r (5'-ACCGCGGCTGCTGGCAC-3') (Lane, 1991), 338f (5'-ACTCCTACGGGAGGCAGCAGGTA-3') and 968f (5'-AACGCGAAGAACCTTA-3') (Nübel et al., 1996).
Sequences were analysed using the DNAstar software package and ARB software (Strunk & Ludwig, 1995). Initial sequence alignments were performed using the LALIGN utility at the GENESTREAM network server (http://www2.igh.cnrs.fr/bin/lalign-guess.cgi). The phylogenetic tree was constructed using the neighbour-joining method (E. coli positions 72–1419) (Saitou & Nei, 1987).
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RESULTS |
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Morphology
Cells of strain PCE-M2T were slightly curved rods, 2·5–4 µm long by 0·6 µm wide (Fig. 1). The bacteria stained Gram-negative and formation of endospores was never observed. Cells in actively growing cultures were motile.
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). Oxygenated sulfur compounds (sulfate, sulfite and thiosulfate) could not replace PCE as electron acceptor, nor could 3-chloro-4-hydroxy-phenylacetate or 1,2-dichloroethane.
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; Finster et al., 1997). Scholz-Muramatsu et al. (1995) reported that fumarate could not be fermented by Dehalospirillum multivorans DSM 12446T. However, we were able to grow Dehalospirillum multivorans fermentatively on fumarate. Pyruvate fermentation is also reported for S. deleyianum and Dehalospirillum multivorans, whereas S. arcachonense is not able to ferment pyruvate (Schumacher et al., 1992; Scholz-Muramatsu et al., 1995; Finster et al., 1997). No data on pyruvate fermentation have been reported for the other two Sulfurospirillum species. Strain PCE-M2T was able to grow at moderate temperatures. Optimal growth occurred between 25 and 30 °C.
Molecular analysis
The nucleotide sequence of a 16S rRNA gene of strain PCE-M2T was determined and analysis revealed that strain PCE-M2T is clustered in the 
-subclass of the Proteobacteria. A phylogenetic tree was constructed and showed that strain PCE-M2T groups within the genus Sulfurospirillum and is closely related to Dehalospirillum multivorans (Fig. 2). DNA–DNA hybridization values and levels of 16S rDNA sequence similarity between strain PCE-M2T, the different Sulfurospirillum species and Dehalospirillum multivorans are given in Table 2. These data show that both strain PCE-M2T and Dehalospirillum multivorans should be included within the genus Sulfurospirillum and that they are related most closely to S. arsenophilum.
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), this agrees well with the G+C contents of other Sulfurospirillum species and Dehalospirillum multivorans (Table 2
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Fatty acid composition
Strain PCE-M2T and the other four strains analysed had similar polar-lipid fatty acid profiles, mainly comprising 16 : 1
7c, 16 : 0 and 18 : 17c (Table 3). The dominant fatty acids were similar in S. arcachonense, as reported by Finster et al. (1997): there were smaller amounts of an 18 : 1 fatty acid and larger amounts of 18 : 0 fatty acid. As discussed by Finster et al. (1997), the fatty acid composition detected is typical of bacteria belonging to the -subclass of the Proteobacteria.
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DISCUSSION |
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) as terminal electron acceptors for growth was isolated. The organism was isolated from a soil polluted with chlorinated aliphatic compounds; this soil produced a rapid dechlorination of PCE in laboratory-scale flow-through columns (Middeldorp et al., 1998). Comparison of the physiological and phylogenetic features of strain PCE-M2T revealed a close relationship to members of the genus Sulfurospirillum and to Dehalospirillum multivorans (Finster et al., 1997; Holliger et al., 1998; Laverman et al., 1995; Oremland et al., 1994; Scholz-Muramatsu et al., 1995; Schumacher et al., 1992; Stolz et al., 1999). We used 16S rDNA sequences to construct a phylogenetic tree showing the position of strain PCE-M2T in relation to closely related organisms and other (dechlorinating) organisms (Fig. 2). DNA–DNA hybridizations between all species tested are below the critical value of 70 % (the approximate threshold for delineation of separate species; Stackebrandt & Goebel, 1994).
Schumacher et al. (1992) established the genus Sulfurospirillum to describe ‘Spirillum’ 5175 as S. deleyianum, a Gram-negative, elemental sulfur-reducing spirillum. Since then, several bacteria have been identified as additional members of the genus Sulfurospirillum (Finster et al., 1997; Stolz et al., 1999). The data presented here justify the addition of our isolate, strain PCE-M2T, to the Sulfurospirillum clade. Since our strain differs from the other described species, e.g. in using PCE as a terminal electron acceptor for growth, we propose that strain PCE-M2T represents a novel species, Sulfurospirillum halorespirans sp. nov.
Strain PCE-M2T is very similar to Dehalospirillum multivorans, especially with respect to the reduction of chlorinated ethenes. At the time of publication, the data that Scholz-Muramatsu et al. (1995) presented on Dehalospirillum multivorans justified the establishment of a new genus. However, over the last decade, more physiological data on Dehalospirillum multivorans have become available, such as the ability of this micro-organism to reduce selenate and arsenate (Holliger et al., 1998). Combining these new data with the phylogenetic data presented here, it is necessary to reclassify Dehalospirillum multivorans DSM 12446T in the genus Sulfurospirillum as Sulfurospirillum multivorans comb. nov.
Dehalobacter restrictus was the first organism isolated that is able to reduce PCE metabolically (Holliger et al., 1993). This organism is limited to the use of PCE and trichloroethene as electron acceptors and molecular hydrogen as electron donor. Several Desulfitobacterium strains that are more diverse in their substrate spectrum have also been isolated from distinct environments. This diversity could indicate that strains of the genus Desulfitobacterium play an important role in the attenuation of chlorinated compounds in nature. Members of the genus Sulfurospirillum also have a more diverse substrate spectrum. They are known specifically for the reduction of sulfur and oxidized metals such as arsenate and selenate. The isolation of strain PCE-M2T, a novel halorespiring species, and the addition of Dehalospirillum multivorans indicate the importance of the genus Sulfurospirillum in biotransformations in soils polluted with chlorinated compounds and metal ions.
Emended description of Sulfurospirillum Schumacher et al. 1993
The original description of this genus was provided by Schumacher et al. (1992). Additionally, some species are able to use arsenate, selenate, PCE or trichloroethene as terminal electron acceptors. The type species is Sulfurospirillum deleyianum.
Description of Sulfurospirillum halorespirans sp. nov.
Sulfurospirillum halorespirans (ha.lo.res'pi.rans. N.L. part. adj. halorespirans halorespiring, respiring halogenated compounds).
Gram-negative. Slightly curved, rod-shaped cells, 2·5–4 µm long by 0·6 µm wide. Motile. Optimum growth between 25 and 30 °C. PCE, selenate, arsenate, nitrate, nitrite, sulfur and fumarate serve as terminal electron acceptors. Capable of microaerophilic growth. Nitrate and nitrite are reduced to ammonium. PCE is reduced to cis-dichloroethene. Selenate is reduced, via selenite, to elemental selenium. Hydrogen, formate, pyruvate and lactate serve as electron donors. Hydrogen and formate serve as electron donors only when acetate is present as carbon source. Can grow fermentatively on fumarate and pyruvate. The G+C content of the type strain is 41·8±0·2 mol%.
The type and only strain, strain PCE-M2T (=DSM 13726T =ATCC BAA-583T), was isolated from a soil that was polluted with chlorinated aliphatic compounds in Maassluis, near Rotterdam Harbour, The Netherlands.
Description of Sulfurospirillum multivorans comb. nov.
Basonym: Dehalospirillum multivorans Scholz-Muramatsu et al. 2002.
The description was provided by Scholz-Muramatsu et al. (1995). Additionally, this species is able to use arsenate and selenate as electron acceptors. The type strain is DSM 12446T.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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T. W. Macbeth, D. E. Cummings, S. Spring, L. M. Petzke, and K. S. Sorenson Jr. Molecular Characterization of a Dechlorinating Community Resulting from In Situ Biostimulation in a Trichloroethene-Contaminated Deep, Fractured Basalt Aquifer and Comparison to a Derivative Laboratory Culture Appl. Envir. Microbiol., December 1, 2004; 70(12): 7329 - 7341. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Holscher, R. Krajmalnik-Brown, K. M. Ritalahti, F. von Wintzingerode, H. Gorisch, F. E. Loffler, and L. Adrian Multiple Nonidentical Reductive-Dehalogenase-Homologous Genes Are Common in Dehalococcoides Appl. Envir. Microbiol., September 1, 2004; 70(9): 5290 - 5297. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. A. Muller, B. M. Rosner, G. von Abendroth, G. Meshulam-Simon, P. L. McCarty, and A. M. Spormann Molecular Identification of the Catabolic Vinyl Chloride Reductase from Dehalococcoides sp. Strain VS and Its Environmental Distribution Appl. Envir. Microbiol., August 1, 2004; 70(8): 4880 - 4888. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. L. Miroshnichenko, S. L'Haridon, P. Schumann, S. Spring, E. A. Bonch-Osmolovskaya, C. Jeanthon, and E. Stackebrandt Caminibacter profundus sp. nov., a novel thermophile of Nautiliales ord. nov. within the class 'Epsilonproteobacteria', isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent Int J Syst Evol Microbiol, January 1, 2004; 54(1): 41 - 45. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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