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1 Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel 69978
2 Laboratory for Microbiology and BCCMTM/LMG Bacteria Collection, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstraat 35, Ghent 9000, Belgium
Correspondence
E. Rosenberg
eros{at}post.tau.ac.il
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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7c. The name Vibrio coralliilyticus sp. nov. is proposed for the novel coral-pathogenic species. In addition to strain YB1T, which was isolated from the Indian Ocean, five additional strains of V. coralliilyticus have been isolated, three from diseased P. damicornis in the Red Sea, one from diseased oyster larvae (Kent, UK) and one from bivalve larvae (Brazil). The six V. coralliilyticus strains showed high genotypic and phenotypic similarities and all were pathogenic to P. damicornis. The closest phylogenetic neighbours to V. coralliilyticus are Vibrio tubiashii, Vibrio nereis and Vibrio shilonii.
The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession numbers for the 16S rDNA sequences of strains LMG 10953, LMG 21349 and YB1T are AJ316167, AJ440004 and AJ440005.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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; Peters, 1997; Richardson, 1998). These diseases have altered both total abundance and species diversity (Loya et al., 2001). The causative agents of only a few of these diseases have been reported: bleaching of Oculina patagonica by Vibrio shilonii (Kushmaro et al., 1996, 1997), black band disease by a microbial consortium (Carlton & Richardson, 1995), sea fan disease by Aspergillus sydowii (Smith et al., 1996; Geiser et al., 1998) and coral white plague possibly by a Sphingomonas sp. (Richardson et al., 1998). The aetiological agents of most coral diseases are presently unknown. What is known is that most, if not all, of the diseases occur at higher-than-normal sea-water temperatures (Rosenberg & Ben-Haim, 2002; Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Since temperatures are expected to rise considerably during this century, it is likely that coral disease will become even more prevalent. Thus, there is an increasing need to identify and characterize coral pathogens.
Recently, we isolated a novel temperature-dependent pathogen of the coral Pocillopora damicornis, tentatively named Vibrio sp. YB1. At water temperatures above 26 °C, a pure culture of this pathogenic strain caused rapid destruction of the coral tissue within 2 weeks (Ben-Haim & Rosenberg, 2002). The present study was carried out in order to characterize Vibrio sp. YB1 and related strains using a polyphasic approach.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). Strains LMG 21348, LMG 21349 and LMG 21350 were isolated from three different diseased P. damicornis colonies on the Eilat coral reef, Red Sea. The bacteria were isolated from the crushed tissues of the corals, as described previously (Ben-Haim & Rosenberg, 2002). V. shilonii ATCC BAA-91T (=LMG 19703T =DSM 13774T) was isolated from a bleached coral of the species O. patagonica (Kushmaro et al., 1996, 2001). The other Vibrio strains used in this study were obtained from the BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection (Table 1). Strains were grown routinely at 30 °C in MBT medium [1·8 % Marine broth (MB) 2216 (Difco), 0·9 % NaCl, 0·5 % tryptone (Difco)], on MB 2216 agar (1·8 % MB 2216, 0·9 % NaCl, 1·8 % agar), tryptone soy agar (TSA; Oxoid) supplemented with 2 % NaCl or on TCBS (thiosulphate-citrate-bile salts-sucrose; Difco) agar adjusted to 3 % NaCl. Liquid cultures were prepared in 125 ml flasks containing 10 ml MBT, incubated with shaking (160 r.p.m.) for 24–48 h. Cultures were stored either at -70 °C in 15 % glycerol or as lyophilized cells.
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. Fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism (FAFLP) patterns were generated and analysed as described previously (Thompson et al., 2001). Briefly, 1 µg high-molecular-mass DNA was digested with TaqI and HindIII, followed by ligation of restriction-half-site-specific adaptors to all restricted fragments. Subsequently, two PCR amplifications were applied using primers H00/T00 and H01-6FAM/T03. Separation of the PCR products was done on 36 cm denaturing polyacrylamide gels on an ABI Prism 377 DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems). Tracking and normalization of the lanes were performed by the GeneScan 3.1 software (Applied Biosystems). Normalized tables of peaks, containing fragments of 50–536 bp, were analysed with BioNumerics 2.0 software (Applied Maths). Similarity among band patterns was calculated using the Dice similarity coefficient and dendrograms were built using the Ward algorithm (Sneath & Sokal, 1973).
Rep-PCR fingerprinting using GTG5 and BOX primers was performed as described previously (Rademaker et al., 1998). Briefly, PCRs consisted of 1 µl template DNA (50 ng µl-1), 5 µl 5x times; Gitschier buffer, 0·4 µl BSA (10 mg ml-1), 2·5 µl DMSO (10 mg ml-1), 1·25 µl of a dNTP mixture (100 mM of each), 1 µl GTG5 primer or 1 µl BOX primer (both 0·3 µg µl-1; Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) and 0·4 µl Taq DNA polymerase (5 U µl-1; Goldstar Red). The PCR products generated with the GTG5 primer were electrophoresed in a 1·5 % agarose gel (w/v) and 1x times; TAE buffer at a constant 55 V for 900 min at 4 °C. The PCR products generated with the BOX primer were electrophoresed in a 2 % agarose gel (w/v) and 1x times; TBE buffer at a constant 130 V for 222 min at 4 °C. After staining with ethidium bromide, the digitized patterns were normalized and analysed numerically using the software BioNumerics 2.0. Similarity among patterns was calculated based on Pearson's similarity coefficient and dendrograms were built using UPGMA (Sneath & Sokal, 1973).
16S rDNA sequencing.
Almost-complete 16S rDNA sequences were obtained following the methodology described previously (Thompson et al., 2001). Briefly, fragments of the 16S rDNA were amplified by PCR using the conserved primers pA (16F27) and pH (16R1522) or MH1 (16F27) and MH2 (16R1485). Subsequently, purified products were used as templates for sequencing amplification using the ABI Prism BigDye Terminator Ready Reaction mix and eight primers (16F358, 16F536, 16F926, 16F1112, 16F1241, 16R339, 16R519 and 16R1093). Purified sequencing products were run on 48 cm denaturing polyacrylamide gels on an ABI Prism 377 DNA sequencer. Sequences were assembled with the AutoAssembler software (Applied Biosystems). The consensus sequences were transferred into BioNumerics 2.0 software, where a phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the neighbour-joining method (Saitou & Nei, 1987). The phylogenetic positions of the consensus sequences were obtained using the program FASTA (Pearson & Lipman, 1988) and compared to known Vibrio 16S rDNA sequences (Dorsch et al., 1992; Ruimy et al., 1994; Mellado et al., 1996; Denner et al., 2002).
DNA–DNA hybridization experiments and G+C content determination.
DNA–DNA hybridization was performed under stringent conditions using the microplate technique (Ezaki et al., 1989) with photobiotin-labelled DNA at 39 °C for 3 h as described previously (Willems et al., 2001). Hybridization values are means of the reciprocal and non-reciprocal values, each of which was performed in four replicates. The G+C content of DNA was determined by HPLC (Tamaoka & Komagata, 1984).
Phenotypic characterization.
Colony morphology was examined using a stereoscopic microscope. Cell morphology was examined by scanning electron microscopy (JEOL 840A). Exponentially growing bacteria in MBT medium were adhered to a carbon-coated grid and negatively stained with 1 % uranyl acetate. Classical phenotypic tests were performed by standard methods (Farmer & Hickman-Brenner, 1992). Biochemical tests were performed using the API 20NE system (micromethod tests for the identification of non-enteric Gram-negative rods; bioMérieux). The standard API 20NE protocol was used except that media were adjusted to 3 % NaCl. NaCl tolerance was determined in MBT medium containing varying concentrations (1–15 %) of NaCl. Sensitivity to the vibriostatic compound O/129 (2,4-diamino-6,7-diisopropylpteridine; Sigma) was determined after incubation for 48 h at 30 °C on MB agar containing 30 µg of the compound on a disc.
Sensitivity to antibiotics was examined using either the minimal inhibition concentration (MIC) method, for erythromycin (24 µg ml-1), tetracycline (20 µg ml-1), chloramphenicol (6 µg ml-1) and kanamycin (50 µg ml-1), or by the paper disc method, for penicillin (10 µg disc-1) and ampicillin (10 µg disc-1). Growth was also tested on MB agar containing 200 µg gentamicin ml-1.
Carbon utilization tests were carried out using Biolog GN2 MicroPlates. Pure cultures (12–18 h growth) were harvested from MB agar plates and suspended in 20 ml GN/GP inoculating fluid (Biolog), adjusted to 3 % NaCl, to an OD600 of 0·130–0·143. The suspension was then distributed into Biolog GN2 microwell plates. Each plate contained 96 microwells with one of 95 different carbon sources in each and tetrazolium violet as an indicator of metabolic activity. The plates were incubated for 48 h at 30 °C. Wells that changed to purple were marked as positive for metabolic utilization. Fatty acid analysis was performed following the protocol of the Microbial Identification System (Microbial ID Inc.) as described previously (Huys et al., 1994). Strains for analysis were grown on TSA for 48 h at 28 °C.
The ability of each strain to infect the coral P. damicornis in controlled aquarium experiments was examined as described previously (Ben-Haim & Rosenberg, 2002).
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RESULTS |
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). These properties, together with its ability to form yellow colonies on TCBS agar and its sensitivity to the vibriostatic compound O/129, suggest that YB1T represents a species of the genus Vibrio (Farmer & Hickman-Brenner, 1992). The 16S rDNA sequences of strains YB1T (1465 bp; accession no. AJ440005), LMG 21349 (1468 bp; AJ440004) and LMG 10953 (1468 bp; AJ316167) were allocated to the 
-Proteobacteria using the FASTA program. These Vibrio strains formed a tight cluster, with more than 99 % 16S rDNA similarity (Fig. 2). Their closest phylogenetic neighbours were Vibrio tubiashii (97·2 %), Vibrio nereis (96·8 %) and V. shilonii (96·6 %).
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). The inner AFLP and GTG5-PCR pattern similarities were higher than 64 %. It has recently been shown that AFLP and rep-PCR similarities around 65 % represent more than 70 % DNA–DNA similarity (Rademaker et al., 2000). It was clearly demonstrated by the three fingerprinting methodologies that the six Vibrio isolates form a tight genomic group that is distinguishable from all other closely related Vibrio species. Surprisingly, strains YB1T and LMG 21350 showed very similar patterns by AFLP and GTG5-PCR, although YB1T originated from the Indian Ocean and LMG 21350 from the Red Sea. Overall, the strains have less than 40 % pattern similarity towards their closest phylogenetic neighbours analysed by the three fingerprinting methodologies.
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) confirmed that the six isolates form a single genomic group, with DNA–DNA similarities higher than 85 %. DNA–DNA similarity to V. nereis and V. tubiashii was respectively only 31 and 27 %. DNA–DNA similarities to V. shilonii, Vibrio diabolicus and Vibrio mytili were lower than 24 %. The G+C content of their DNA ranged from 44·9 to 45·6 mol%.
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). The cellular fatty acid compositions of the six novel strains are presented in Table 3. The novel strains had similar overall fatty acid profiles, congruent with those known for the family Vibrionaceae (Bertone et al., 1996; Urdaci et al., 1990). Differences in biochemical tests and carbon compound utilization between the six isolates are shown in Table 4. Of the 117 tests performed, the strains gave the same qualitative result in 110 cases. Strains YB1T and LMG 21350 gave identical results in all 117 phenotypic tests, although YB1T was isolated from the Indian Ocean and LMG 21350 from the Red Sea. The other strains differed from YB1T in only one to five of the 117 tests performed.
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). For instance, the isolates utilized D-serine, while V. tubiashii, V. nereis and V. shilonii do not. Furthermore, the isolates utilized m-inositol, methyl 
-D-glucoside, 
-ketobutyric acid and alaninamide, whereas V. tubiashii and V. nereis do not. In contrast to the novel species, V. shilonii is negative for utilization of D-gluconic acid, L-leucine and D-serine. Moreover, the novel species possesses larger amounts of the fatty acids 17 : 0 and 17 : 0 iso than do V. tubiashii and V. nereis and larger amounts of 17 : 0 and 18 : 17c than does V. shilonii.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). From the data presented here, the strain clearly represents a novel Vibrio species. During the course of this investigation, three additional pathogenic Vibrio strains (LMG 21348, LMG 21349, LMG 21350) were isolated from diseased P. damicornis in the Red Sea and two other strains, LMG 20538 and LMG 10953, present in the BCCM/LMG Bacteria Collection, were also shown to be closely related to Vibrio sp. YB1T. These six strains form a tight cluster, based on genotypic and phenotypic properties, that is significantly different from other Vibrio species. Based on these results, we propose the name Vibrio coralliilyticus sp. nov. for this novel pathogenic species.
One of the most interesting findings of this study was the demonstration of the power of bacterial taxonomy to uncover novel coral-pathogenic strains. Vibrio strains LMG 10953 and LMG 20538, respectively isolated from diseased larvae of Crassostrea gigas and Nodipecten nodosus, were shown to be pathogenic to the coral P. damicornis. Strain LMG 10953 was previously identified as V. tubiashii (Hada et al., 1984). Our results clearly demonstrate that this strain belongs to V. coralliilyticus sp. nov.
The fact that coral-pathogenic strains of V. coralliilyticus are widely distributed is important in understanding the source of coral disease and attempts to prevent their spread. V. coralliilyticus sp. nov. infects and causes tissue damage to its host coral only at water temperatures above 25 °C. It is likely that during the winter, when temperatures are lower, the bacterium is present in different hosts, possibly bivalve larvae. Clearly, the taxonomic studies described here open new and unexpected avenues of investigation regarding the transmission of coral diseases.
Description of Vibrio coralliilyticus sp. nov.
Vibrio coralliilyticus (co.ral.li.i.ly'ti.cus. L. n. corallium coral; Gr. adj. lytikos dissolving; N.L. adj. coralliilyticus coral-dissolving).
Conforms to the descriptions of the family Vibrionaceae and of the genus Vibrio (Farmer & Hickman-Brenner, 1992). Cells are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming rods (1·2–1·5x0·8 µm) that are motile by a single polar, sheathed flagellum when grown on solid or liquid medium. Colonies are cream-coloured on marine agar and yellow on TCBS agar after 48 h incubation at 30 °C, have smooth edges and do not luminesce. The predominant cellular fatty acids are 16 : 0 and 18 : 17c. Biochemical tests and carbon compound utilization data are summarized in Table 4
. The type strain, strain YB1T (=LMG 20984T =ATCC BAA-450T), was isolated from a diseased coral of the species Pocillopora damicornis in the Indian Ocean. Further strains have been isolated from diseased P. damicornis in the Red Sea and from larvae of oysters in the Atlantic Ocean. All six strains described here are pathogenic to the coral P. damicornis. The G+C content of the type strain is 45·6 mol%.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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8 % NaCl. Except for the tests included in the table, all six strains gave the same qualitative results with the API-20 NE system and Biolog GN2 MicroPlate tests.